Focus:Women in management, Sex roles, sex discrimination, gender factors, diversity training and Affirmative Action, and gender-related managerial styles.
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Every week Emerald Intelligence + Full Text provides free access to the full text of two journals from their business management and professional research article database. Here we provide a weekly review of the most relevant articles from those journals, selected for the interests of friends of the Asian Business Strategy & Street Intelligence Ezine.
Each weekly review focuses on a specific professional or management topic. The selection changes each week on a Monday around Hong Kong/Singapore/Malaysia time 6pm or GST 10am. See also the related searches immediately below, related resources, upcoming features and the archives.
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Women in Management
An Asia Pacific Management Forum Weekly Research Review
Full-text Articles provided by Anbar Management Intelligence and Emerald Intelligence + Full Text. Review by the Asia Pacific Management Forum
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The full-text articles reviewed here are available for free during the dates below. Subsequently, they can still be accessed for a fee through Emerald Intelligence + Full Text via single article order, subscription to the full service or access through a local library or resource center that already subscribes. The Anbar search (left sidebar) is always active returning brief citations. The latest review with free articles for this week is always available at This Week's Review
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The Weeks of 20th December to 10th January 2000:
Women in Asian Management
Women in Management Review
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In mid 1999, Nik Aziz, the leader of PAS, the fundamentalist Islam party that made considerable gains in the Malaysian election later in November, confirmed an affirmative action program concerning women in the work-force. It's not one that many women would endorse however. His view was that "ugly" women should be given preference in public service recruitment in the PAS ruled Kelantan state, as "beautiful" women can easily find a husband.
This is perhaps one of the most extreme examples of discrimination against women in the workforce, but is certainly not rare. It also underlines the view from many of the articles in this review that gender discrimination is related more to culture than any other factor. Cultures where the role of women is subservient and women are seen as the "lesser sex" reflect this also in the work context. Accordingly, Islam states, provincial Chinese areas, Japan, and regions such as those in India where a caste system predominates are less likely to encourage the advancement of women in the workforce or in management.
See for example the following articles freely available this week..
The women in blue shalwar-kameez
Pauline Amos-Wilson
Women in Management Review; 14: 4 1999; pp. 128-135
This article reports a study conducted in Pakistan with the assistance of the police service there on the reasons why women police officers enter this profession, given that policing in Pakistan is traditionally hostile towards women, and the tactics they employ in order to gain promotion. It outlines the difficulties in attempting to conduct research on this topic as baseline data did not exist, prior to this study, on women in the police in Pakistan. In general, the reasons given by the interviewees who took part in the study for taking up a career in the police service, were to ensure personal security and to help other women. The article discusses the problems posed for policewomen's career progression, which includes glass walls and glass ceilings, the need for women's policing to be segregated from that for men, the lack of experiential training and numbers. It concludes by proposing some modest steps which could be taken to improve opportunities and progression for policewomen in Pakistan.
Keywords: Development, Leadership, Pakistan, Police, Women
Article Type: Survey, Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- **, Readability- ***
Women in management: a Malaysian perspective
Manjulika Koshal , Ashok K. Gupta , Rajindar Koshal
Women in Management Review; 13: 1 1998; pp. 11-18
Surveys of women in management positions in the USA and elsewhere have indicated a notion of masculine managerial model of "organizational man". Malaysia presents an interesting case study on attitudes towards women managers because it is a society undergoing rapid changes from its strong traditional religious and cultural norms to modern values about women. This study focuses on the perceptions of Malaysian men and women executives about the female managers in corporate Malaysia. Specifically, the study examines the organizational environment for women managers in Malaysia, how men and women at different ranks feel about women's advancement in the organization, the differences in the leadership styles of men and women managers and their effectiveness in achieving organizational goals.
Keywords: Malaysia, Managers, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Women's employment status in two Japanese retail stores in Hong Kong
May M.L. Wong
Women in Management Review; 12: 4 1997; pp. 150-157
Examines the employment status of women employees working for two Japanese department stores in Hong Kong. Empirical evidence reveals that Japanese expatriate managers bring sexist cultural values, which discriminate against women in the host-country environment, because a majority of local female employees are employed in lower hierarchical positions at the bottom of the organizational and managerial pyramid, while male employees occupy most of the professional and managerial positions at the top. Discusses the situation in which female employees are likely to be discriminated against by senior management from the perspectives of horizontal and vertical job segregation. Identifies four major categories of constraints arising from the company's human resource management (HRM) policies and practices leading to the subordinated employment position of women - recruitment and selection, job assignment and promotion, training and development and remuneration. Posits that these HRM policies and practices are influenced by the Japanese preconception of women and the characteristics of the retail industry.
Keywords: Department stores, Employment law, Hong Kong, Japan, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
British South Asian women managers and professionals: experiences of work and family
Baljit Kaur Rana, Carolyn Kagan, Suzan Lewis and Usha Rout
Women in Management Review; 13: 6 1998; pp. 221-232
Even though an increasing number of British South Asian women have moved into paid employment over the years as a reflection of social and cultural mobility and change, their work-family experiences are not widely reported. This paper examines the experiences of British South Asian full-time managerial or professional women combining work and family life. A qualitative study based in the north-west of England was conducted utilising semi-structured interviews with 17 women. Five themes are discussed: cultural influences on domestic responsibilities; additional responsibilities and commitments to extended family and community members; work-family priorities and "superwoman syndrome"; stereotypes of roles and responsibilities at work; and experiences of discrimination. Managerial or professional British South Asian women are subjected to the same cultural family commitments and expectations as other non-professional British South Asian working women. Practical implications of the findings are related to managing diversity approaches and organisational culture change.
Keywords: Ethnic groups, Family life, Gender, Managers, Professionals, Stress
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- ***, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Generalisation is difficult in multi-cultural Asia. Asia is scattered with successful Asian business women and entrepreneurs, admittedly many who have had a helping hand courtesy of another significant force in Asian business power - the family company. In Singapore and Hong Kong, sex has become much less of a barrier to success in management. In Thailand and the Philippines, you can count many women in the top echelons of business, and political leadership is also not just for the men. Sri Lanka has a women leader, the Philippines had one, Malaysia now has a woman as the leader of the political reform movement, and women are in powerful political positions in Hong Kong and Malaysia particularly. The boss of the Raffles group in Singapore is a women as is the boss of the Dusit Thani group in Thailand, and it is highly likely that a women will become CEO of the Siam Commercial Bank in Thailand in the near future.
While success stories are re-inforced by the new media, business in Asia at large remains a man's world. While "face" remains a force, and the old stamping grounds of the karaoke club (sexism at its finest) and the golf course predominate as play grounds, breaking the informal barriers are certainly not impossible, but a hard grind. The same applies to Western business-women in Asia though Hong Seng Woo in her article Negotiating in China: some issues for Western women, (Women in Management Review; 14: 4 1999; pp. 115-120), would disagree. The abstract of her very practical article reads...
This article addresses some issues for Western women in negotiating with individuals and organisations in China. To be successful in a Chinese negotiation requires an awareness and understanding of cultural differences, and negotiation characteristics and behaviour to avoid any misunderstanding or tension. Research results show that there are no major hurdles for Western women negotiators in China. There are, in fact, advantages if they follow a few guidelines. These include having a professional and businesslike approach and understanding the cultural characteristics of a Chinese negotiation. The advantages include being easily noticed, remembered and receiving concessions more readily than Western men. As a result, the negotiation receives more attention and consideration, thus facilitating the achievement of the negotiation goals.
Keywords: Management styles, National cultures, Negotiating, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- *, Practice Implication- ***, Originality- **, Readability- ***
While some may say that women have already won the war in the West after a couple of decades of feminism amidst the "Western values" of human rights and equality, they now face the challenges of change as the possessed rather than the dis-possessed. The global and information age threatens the advancement of women according to Alexander Kouzmin, Nada Korac-Kakabadse, Andrew Korac-Kakabadse, in "Globalization and information technology: vanishing social contracts, the "pink collar" workforce and public policy challenges", Women in Management Review; 14: 6 1999; pp. 230-252
This paper critically examines the influence of information technology (IT) on women's career structures. Globalization is forcing an increasing inter-dependence of radically re-engineered labour forces and the further "internal" exploitation of the internationalization of the dual labour market many women have endured. The global trend is towards further fragmenting a shrinking, gender-based set of career opportunities and creating an increasingly marginalized, part-time, "pink collar" labour force, associated with the putative revolution of the tertiary sector transforming out of industrial, manufacturing economies. The implications of the emergence of a "pink collar" labour force largely go unexamined. The much heralded argument that IT will transform "coercive" organizational structures and work practices needs, yet again, to be critically examined in the context of the further destruction of professional opportunities for women in radically re-engineered public sectors, aggressively "micro-economized" labour forces and rapidly dissipating organizational and social contracts.
Keywords: Globalization, Information technology, Careers, Labour force, Public sector, Contract
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- *, Practice Implication- **, Originality- **, Readability- *
There are also several articles this week focusing on the strategies that women use or can use to cope with their unique problems or soar through the glass ceiling. Some of these include:
Gender differences in occupational stress and coping strategies among IT personnel
Vivien K.G. Lim and Thompson S.H. Teo
Women in Management Review; 11: 1 1996; pp. 20-28
Examines gender differences in occupational stress and coping strategies among information technology (IT) personnel in Singapore. Data were collected via a combination of mail surveys and semi-structured interviews. Analyses results of the survey using analysis of covariance procedures. Female IT personnel reported significantly higher scores on sources of stress originating from "factors intrinsic to the job", "managerial role", "career and achievement", "organizational structure and climate", and "relationships with others". Contrary to initial prediction, no significant gender difference was found for stress originating from "home-work interface". With respect to coping strategies, female IT personnel tend to seek social support and talk to others when they experience stress, while men tend to suppress their emotions and deal with problems in a logical and unemotional manner. Discusses implications of findings.
Keywords: Coping, Gender, Information technology, Organizational behaviour, Stress
Article Type: Survey, Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- *, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- **
"Go out there and go for broke": senior women and promotion in Education Queensland, Australia
Brigid Limerick and Cheryl Andersen
Women in Management Review; 14: 2 1999; pp. 37-43
Women find it difficult to achieve promotion into senior administration positions in education systems throughout the Western world. This paper reports on interviews with 23 women who are employed by Education Queensland (Australia). These women, who were all participants in a Women in Management course offered by the Queensland University of Technology, have been successful in being promoted into administrative positions in schools and school support centres. The focus of the paper is on why these women have gone for promotion and the successful strategies that they employed to achieve promotion. These strategies included "putting runs on the board", being persistent, networking, managing in their own way and accessing appropriate professional development. The paper concludes with the warning that the culture of the central bureaucracy, however, is perceived as overwhelmingly male and this acts as a significant barrier to further career progress.
Keywords: Australia, Education, Motivation, Promotion, Schools, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- ***, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Use of career strategies by Filipino managerial women
Ronald J. Burke, Louie A. Divinagracia and Ermias Mamo
Women in Management Review; 13: 6 1998; pp. 217-220
This study examined the use of a variety of career strategies by 200 Filipino managerial women. Data were collected using anonymously completed questionnaires. These women made considerable use of career strategies making greater use of those internal to those external to the organization. Managerial women using more career strategies worked more extra hours per week and participated in a greater number of training and development activities. In addition, these women were more satisfied with their careers and reported more optimistic career prospects.
Keywords: Career development, National cultures, Philippines, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- **
Do gender roles differ from country to country? The following article found that personality characteristics as measured by a test previously validated for use in Hong Kong found no difference between males and females enrolled in business programs. Along with other articles reviewed here, this may suggest that Asian business women self-select when entering a business role, so that there is relatively little gender differences.
Managerial motivation and gender roles: a study of females and males in Hong Kong
Bahman P. Ebrahimi
Women in Management Review; 14: 2 1999; pp. 44-53
Chinese women are often perceived as passive, submissive, lacking aggressiveness and a drive to be successful managers. Using a previously validated culturally modified Miner Sentence Completion Scale-H (for hierarchic), this study compares the motivation to manage a sample of 156 BBA and MBA students in Hong Kong. Results indicate no significant differences between the scores of males and females on the total MSCS-H or its components, including assertiveness and competitiveness. Gender role differences are not supported by differences in managerial motivation of Hong Kong business students.
Keywords: Gender, Hong Kong, Motivation, Roles
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- **, Readability- **
According to an article by Carol A. McKeen and Nailin Bu, (Career and life expectations of Chinese business students: the effects of gender, Women in Management Review; 13: 5 1998; pp. 171-183) female business students in China perceive many barriers to advancement.
The career and life expectations of male and female Chinese students and graduates of the Certified General Accountants (CGA) Canada program in China were explored using a survey and semi-structured interviews. The results of the survey were compared to data from students of a leading Canadian business school. Chinese students of both sexes show a much higher level of commitment to their careers than their Canadian counterparts. Despite this commitment, their qualifications, and the critical shortage of professionally trained people in China, female Chinese students are pessimistic about their prospects for career advancement. They cite negative stereotypes, lack of mentors and role models, isolation, and a lack of organizational policies enabling them to successfully fulfill their parental roles as major barriers. This is consistent with the North American literature on the "glass ceiling".
Keywords: Accountants, China, Gender, Job promotion, Management
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Down south in Australia, two researchers have examined the effect of popular media such as films, plays and television on female role perceptions. The media is a strong shaper of cultural values and perceptions. It creates reality more than reflecting it, and usually reflects the values of those who control the media and the mainstream consumer who pays for it. If Australian popular media seems "unfair", what hope is there for Asian media?
Ms representations: women, management and popular culture
Jane O'Sullivan and Alison Sheridan
Women in Management Review; 14: 1 1999; pp. 14-20
Popular representations of the workplace have tended to construct women as unsuited to management and leadership roles. In their reflective capacity these popular fictional texts illustrate the workplace. In their capacity to construct popular perceptions of "reality", the texts offer an important insight into women's and men's understandings and expectations of their workplace relationships. In this article we reflect on how popular films, plays and television shows can make visible some manifestations of the kinds of resistance women continue to experience in non-traditional domains such as management. While these kinds of texts have not been central to the analysis of workplace relations within the management literature, we argue that as social documents they have much to contribute to an understanding of the limited advancement of women.
Keywords: Australia, Film, Management, Media, Television, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- **, Readability- ***
An interesting Singapore study found that men had a more positive attitude to teleworking than women
Factorial dimensions and differential effects of gender on perceptions of teleworking
Thompson S.H. Teo and Vivien K.G. Lim
Women in Management Review; 13: 7 1998; pp. 253-263
Teleworking has received increased attention around the world as a means to provide more balanced lifestyles, higher job satisfaction and increased work productivity. This study examines the factorial dimensions and differential effects of gender on the perceptions of advantages and disadvantages of teleworking to individuals and to organizations. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey of IT professionals. Results showed that males perceived teleworking as enabling improvement in the quality of life and improvement in productivity/reduction of overheads to a greater extent than females. Implications of the results are discussed.
Keywords: Flexible working, Gender, Homeworking, Technology, Work
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Affirmative action, a policy that deliberately discriminates in favour of groups that are perceived to be at a competitive advantage is widely practiced in countries where the culture emphasizes values of equality and human rights. We have already referred to the form of Affirmative Action advocated in Terranggu state in Malaysia, a practice that may indeed seem "curious" to non-Muslims or even some non-traditional Muslims, but to many it makes practical sense. It also underlies that all forms of Affirmative Action are by their nature political actions, reflecting the values of the ruling élite.
In Patterns in the policies: affirmative action in Australia, Women in Management Review; 13: 7 1998; pp. 243-252, Alison Sheridan argues that
Although affirmative action is often referred to as though it was an homogeneous entity, the reality is that affirmative action policies can take many different forms. To date, the variety of affirmative action policies that have been implemented in Australia has not been well-documented. In this paper, a framework is developed to describe the variety of affirmative action policies being implemented in Australia in the 1990s. The most frequently reported policies by Australian organisations concern reviewing employment policies for discriminatory practices. The next most commonly reported policies relate to companies' efforts to assist employees to balance the competing roles of work and family. Policies that seek to challenge traditional patterns of employment, and policies that seek to "fix" women are less commonly reported by organisations. The breaking down of affirmative action into various types of policies provides scope for more fully exploring the question of the effectiveness of affirmative action policies.
Keywords: Affirmative action, Australia, Policy, Women
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
A far more positive approach than the flawed and politically-based Affirmative Action programs, which also breed resentment in men due to perceived advantages given to women, and causes scepticism by others on the "real" competence of those who benefit is to focus on the wider issue of "diversity". Diversity training encourages managers to treat all as individuals inclusive of the advantages and disadvantage that their sex, ethnicity, disability brings to the workplace.
Some good practical guidance here:
Managing diversity: beyond affirmative action in Australia
Robin Kramar
Women in Management Review; 13: 4 1998; pp. 133-142
The term managing diversity is increasingly being used by Australian managers. It is a process which involves more than compliance with affirmative action legislation. This article identifies the major philosophical principles underpinning diversity management, the major ways in which it differs from affirmative action and the arguments for a diversity management approach. The process of building a culture which explicitly values differences between individuals operates at three levels: the strategic level, the managerial level and the operational level. The last section of the article examines some of the techniques which can be used at these three levels to effectively manage diversity. Examples from Australian organisations are used to illustrate these techniques.
Keywords: Human resource management, Management philosophy, Management structure, Management techniques
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- *, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
Interestingly, a South Korean study suggests that gender plays a less important role in cross-cultural than uni-cultural environments. This reviewer suggests that culture is a stronger determinant of behaviour than gender, and in such environments gender differences pay a secondary role to culture.
Leadership and power relationships based on culture and gender
Philipp A. Stoeberl, Ik-Whan G. Kwon Dongchul Han , Mueun Bae
Women in Management Review; 13: 6 1998; pp. 208-216
Leadership and power are often used to influence people's behavior. However, little is known about the degree and directional relationship between these two constructs and gender. Equally unknown is the degree of impact that culture and gender together may have on such a relationship. This paper attempts to establish an empirical relationship between these two constructs and culture along with gender. Baba and Ace's modified instruments on leadership and Hinkin and Schriesheim's instrument on five sources of power were used in surveying 486 students from four business schools in Korea and the USA to derive functional relationships between leadership and power. Results suggest there is a statistically significant relationship between power and leadership and that gender has an impact on that relationship. However, this study does not support the contention that gender plays an important role in cross-cultural environments; instead, it plays an important role only when considered within a specific culture.
Keywords: Gender, Leadership, National cultures, Power
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- **
And yet another study stressing the importance of culture and diversity rather than gender alone...
Do women and men communicate differently at work? An empirical study in Hong Kong
Catherine W. Ng
Women in Management Review; 13: 1 1998; pp. 3-10
Some studies, mainly in the West, have suggested that women are more encouraging in their communication styles than men, especially when the conversation is about a personal matter versus when it is business-related. It has also been contended that same-sex communication between women is more supportive than both mixed-sex communication and same-sex communication between men. However, this research, conducted in Hong Kong among full- and part-time tertiary students, shows that the above contentions are perhaps culture dependent, and that careful re-examination of gender-based differences is warranted, particularly when one is considering communication styles at work.
Keywords: Communications, Gender, Hong Kong, Organizational behaviour, Work
Article Type: Survey, Theoretical with application in practice
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- **
And we will leave the last word to a cross-national study that supports the thesis of cultural rather gender effects, this time in the area of managerial style.
A cross-national cross-gender study of managerial task preferences and evaluation of work characteristics
Nina Toren , Alison M. Konrad , Izumi Yoshioka , Roger Kashlak
Women in Management Review; 12: 6 1997; pp. 234-243
Addresses the debate about gender-based leadership/management styles by examining and comparing managerial task preferences and rating of work characteristics of women and men in management positions in the USA, Japan, Australia, Israel and Italy. The findings do not support the notion that women have a distinct leadership style, e.g. that they are more people-oriented than men, or that they differ consistently in their evaluation of various job factors, such as extrinsic versus intrinsic components. However, country of origin has strong and pervasive effects on management style and orientation in these terms. Japanese managers are markedly different from those in other countries (they exhibit a so-called "feminine" style), while the Americans and Israelis resemble each other. The findings sustain the argument that managerial style is not mainly determined by gender but rather by contextual factors, such as national culture, organization and occupation.
Keywords: Gender, Leadership, Management styles
Article Type: Theoretical with application in practice, Survey
Content Indicators: Research Implication- **, Practice Implication- **, Originality- *, Readability- ***
As always we have only skimmed the surface of relevant articles this week and only those that are particularly relevant for Asia-Pacific managers. Many other articles are available as well including those focusing on other countries and international perspectives.
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